The Tactical Side of Russia’s Arms Sales to the
Middle East
Anna Borshchevskaya
Summary
Russia is the world’s top arms exporter, second only to the United States. The Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) region has emerged in recent years as Moscow’s second most important
arms market after Asia. Moscow has made great strides in this region since Vladimir Putin came
to power, and especially in recent years, after it embarked on major military reform following
August 2008. Arms sales matter to the Kremlin because they are a major source of financial gain,
but these arms sales are also a tactical foreign policy instrument for wielding influence.
Russia’s arms—generally speaking—are well made, sometimes on par with the US, and well
suited for the region’s needs. These platforms and armaments are also more affordable than
Western weaponry. The US simply will not sell weapons to certain countries, which, therefore,
turn to Moscow. Politically, Russian arms come with few strings attached and thus are a great
choice when a country wants to diversify away from the West, or at least signal such an intent.
Moscow has made inroads with traditional clients such as Iran, Syria and Egypt, but also
diversified toward countries closer to the West, such as the Arab Gulf states, Morocco and Turkey.
Russia’s overall influence in the region is growing in the context of Western retreat. The Russian
defense sector has problems, but also demonstrated improvements, learning and flexibility.
Undoubtedly, Russia’s arms sales to the MENA region will continue to present a challenge for
American interests in this region in the coming years.
Introduction
Russia is one of the world’s top arms exporters, second only to the United States since at least
1999.1 In recent years, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region emerged as Russia’s
second most important arms market after Asia. From 2000 to 2016, almost a fifth of Russia’s arms
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exports went to the MENA region.2 To put this in perspective, in 2009, Moscow sold
approximately $9 billion worth of arms to this region. In 2016, it sold $21.4 billion.3 Many of these
sales are upgrades to existing packages.4 Since 2000, Moscow also diversified from traditional
Soviet-era regional clients.
Since officially coming to power in May 2000, if not before, Russian President Vladimir Putin
sought to restore Russia’s image as a Great Power in the context of zero-sum anti-Westernism—
for Russia to win, the West had to lose. His approach to the Middle East is the extension of former
Russian prime minister Evgeniy Primakov’s vision of a “multipolar world,” driven by desire to
prevent the West from dominating any region, and curb Western support for democratization
efforts in other countries. For the last 17 years, Putin worked to regain political influence and raise
Russia to the status of a competitor to the United States by increasing emphasis on Russia’s
business interests—primarily arms, energy and high-tech goods such as nuclear reactors.5
Russia’s economy remains over-reliant on raw materials and natural resources, but the defense
industry is one technology-intensive sector where Russia holds an international leadership
position. Domestically, Russia’s defense industry is a major source of employment. Russian
President Vladimir Putin renewed his emphasis on modernizing the armed forces, especially the
navy, on May 7, 2012, on the same day as he took office as president for a third time.6
Internationally, the Russian defense industry is a source of important revenue. Thus, Putin
lamented in February 2012 about Iraq and countries undergoing the Arab Spring, “Russian
companies are losing their decades-long positions in local commercial markets and are being
deprived of large commercial contracts.”7 As Sergei Chemezov, chief of the powerful state
industrial holding Rostec, said in February 2015, “As for the conflict situation in the Middle East,
I do not conceal it, and everyone understands this, the more conflicts there are, the more they
[clients] buy weapons from us. Volumes are continuing to grow despite sanctions. Mainly, it is in
Latin America and the Middle East.”8
Yet, arms sales entail far more to the Kremlin than mere financial gains. They are also Moscow’s
tactical foreign policy tool for wielding political influence and changing power balance dynamics.
Indeed, in July 2012, Putin said that arms exports are “an effective instrument for advancing
[Moscow’s] national interests, both political and economic.”9 In December 2013, Deputy Prime
Minister Dmitry Rogozin said that Russia’s arms sales are the most important element of
Moscow’s relations with other countries.10 And Moscow’s chief goal—regime survival, which it
hopes to achieve through reduction of Western influence—runs counter to Western interests and
values. Thus, in the MENA region, Moscow courts virtually everyone, and competes with the West
whenever an opportunity arises. Arms exports are a major component of these efforts.
Measurement Issue
Several obstacles hamper a complete understanding of Russia’s arms trade. Rosoboronexport,
Russia’s arms export agency, does not publicize total annual sales figures. In addition, some
companies can sell arms directly to clients, bypassing Rosoboronexport, and may not disclose
information. When Moscow does disclose Russia’s arms sales figures, the details are generally
sparse. Unlike Western countries, Moscow does not provide disaggregated data. The recipient
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countries in the Middle East are also not consistently forthcoming with details about receiving
Russian weaponry.11
Theoretically, as Chatham House points out, two measures are available to understand arms trade:
military capabilities transfer, which involves estimating the material volume of arms transfer, and
the financial value of arms transfers. 12 Both present challenges. For example, some countries pay
more than others do for the same weaponry. Also, countries and sources use different definitions
of what constitutes an arms transfer, often with substantial variation. These issues hamper a
complete understanding of Russia’s arms sales, and some, such as the Stockholm International
Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), have come up with their own measures to overcome these
difficulties.13 Yet, the available data, though incomplete, is sufficient to gain at least an outline,
and occasionally a more complete picture of Russian arms exports.
Why Choose a Russian Weapon?
When countries prefer Russian weaponry over American systems, it is usually for evident reasons.
The US will not sell weapons to many of Russia’s clients for a variety of reasons. Russian
weaponry is relatively inexpensive and, generally speaking, often more robust than comparable
American systems. In some areas, Moscow’s systems lag severely behind the US in terms of
quality and capabilities, but in others, it is a near-peer competitor. For instance, Moscow is quite
good at building anti-aircraft missiles, such as the S-300 and S-400 systems, based on lessonslearned
from the Kosovo Air War. The American F-35 joint strike fighter can likely currently beat
an S-400 (although there is no way to know for sure unless they engage in direct combat).
However, Moscow is developing the next generation, the S-500, whose full capabilities are
unknown. Russian current-generation aircraft and ballistic missile defenses are on par with those
of the US in terms of defense technology. Some Russian missiles have as long a range as American
missiles, a few of them even longer. 14 In addition, the US Foreign Military Sales (FMS) system
is very slow, bureaucratic and cumbersome, while Moscow takes less time to deliver after a
contract is signed.
Moscow is weak when it comes to follow-up support of sales, and Russian weaponry is not always
as technically advanced as America’s, but it is good enough for the needs of many markets, and is
often far better than what the purchasing countries can build themselves. Russian weaponry is also
a good choice for states on a budget. Moscow advertises this fact. For example, in early October
2015, days after Russia’s Syria intervention, Moscow fired 26 cruise missiles from primarily small
corvettes in the Caspian Sea to hit targets in Syria.15 Moscow made a public display of the event,
not only to demonstrate Russia’s own might but also to show other countries they need not
purchase a large expensive warship to achieve strong naval capabilities, and that Moscow would
be happy to help them achieve this goal.
Another practical consideration is that many local military personnel in the MENA region have
trained on Russian weaponry and feel comfortable operating it. As one American source familiar
with the situation explained it, “If you have an AK-47, why change to an M-16?”16 For example,
helicopters are especially crucial to Egypt’s anti-Islamist campaign; and according to first-hand
pilot accounts, Russia’ less expensive helicopters fit Egypt’s needs well. Overall, Russian attack
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helicopters are not necessarily superior technologically, but they bring heavy firepower to a fight.
They may fare worse in a contested air space, but the Sinai airspace is not contested. The Russian
MiG-29 is a highly advanced aircraft, easier to maintain than an American one, and cheaper than
an F-2217 (which the US is currently not even exporting).
Beyond these advantages, Russian weaponry comes with few strings attached, in contrast to arms
sales from Washington. Moscow, unlike the US, does not prohibit secondary arms sales. This
means, for example, that when the US sells weapons to Egypt, the weapon must stay in Egypt.18
But in Egypt’s context, buying a Russian weapon it can easily resell to someone else for profit
may be a preferable option.
Moscow also does not burden arms sales with preconditions, such as mandated improvements of
human rights. In addition, many in the MENA find Russia easier to deal with—no one needs to
worry about falling afoul of a theoretical Russian equivalent of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices
Act, for example. Thus, countries turn to Moscow when they wish to signal to Washington that
they have other options if they do not like the United States’ pre-conditions. At the same time,
some Arab states are genuinely interested in diversifying supplies away from the US. Indeed, after
the 1991 Gulf War, several GCC states bought Russian systems. The West should not discount Arab
countries making such decisions. Russia, unlike the America, invests effort across the MENA
region to sell weapons systems. Western analysts tend to point out Russia could never replace the
United States. Nevertheless, such views discount another option: Moscow does not have to replace
the US. Other authoritarian leaders can choose to move closer to Russia because the Kremlim
offers Arab states different advantages including quicker delivery and better negotiating terms.
When it comes to arms sales in the MENA region, Moscow has made major inroads during the
Putin era with Iran, Syria, Egypt, Libya and Algeria, and to a lesser extent with Turkey, Iraq, and
elsewhere in the Arab Persian Gulf. It is also making small inroads with Tunisia and Morocco.
Iran
Russia and Iran share a complicated and primarily adversarial centuries-long history, but things
slowly began to change following the end of the Iran-Iraq war in 1988, the death of Iran’s
revolutionary leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, and Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in
1989. Between 1989 and 1991, the Kremlin signed several arms-supply deals with Tehran worth
$5.1 billion, and Iran emerged as one of the Soviet defense industry’s biggest clients. When Putin
became president, many hardline Russian politicians and generals endorsed improving relations
with Iran in anticipation of major arms sales. Soon Moscow began assisting Tehran’s nuclear
program. In October 2000, another important event took place. Putin publicly repealed the 1995
Gore-Chernomyrdin pact—an agreement that limited Russia’s sale of conventional arms to Iran.
According to press reports, in practice the agreement actually gave Russia “a free pass to sell
conventional weapons to Iran” until 1999.19 Moreover, the public cancelation of the deal signaled
Putin’s interest in closer cooperation with Iran.
By 2001, Iran became the third largest foreign buyer of Russian weaponry.20 The increased arms
trade raised Russia-Iran cooperation to a new level, based on mutual interests. Upon Putin’s
invitation, Iranian president Mohammad Khatami came to Moscow in March 2001—the first high
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level visit since June 1989, when Iranian Parliament Speaker Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani
traveled to Russian, and the first visit by an Iranian president since the 1979 Islamic Revolution
In December 2005, Tehran signed a billion-dollar arms deal that included 29 Tor-M1 missiledefense
systems to protect the Bushehr nuclear power plant. According to press reports, in early
2006, Russia also invested $750 million in energy projects in Iran.21 The same year, Moscow
strongly endorsed the P5+1 format22 for negotiating with Tehran on the nuclear issue. This new
context gave Russia increased diplomatic leverage, and the Kremlin used it to repeatedly dilute
sanctions against Iran and extract concessions from the West in exchange for Russia’s cooperation.
Indeed, in 2010, the Kremlin extracted an unprecedented concession: Moscow would support some
sanctions on Iran in exchange for the US lifting sanctions against the Russian military complex,
which would allow Moscow to sell anti-aircraft batteries to Tehran. The same year, under
American and Israeli pressure, Moscow froze the sale of S-300 air-defense missiles to Iran.
Several factors explain Moscow’s more permissive stance toward Iran’s nuclear program. First,
Moscow never envisioned the threat of Iran’s nuclear program as the West did. For Moscow, a
pro-Western Iran would be more threatening than a nuclear Iran. 23 Moscow for decades has been
surrounded by nuclear powers and while one more may not be desirable, it is something Moscow
feels it could also live with. Soviet and then Russian diplomat on arms-control and nonproliferation
issues Victor Mizin wrote in October 2000 that while “certain people in Russia pay
lip service to the politically correct notion that proliferation is dangerous,” Moscow rejects the
Western term “rogue states.” Deployed ballistic missiles would not threaten Russian troops
stationed abroad as they do American troops, and Russia has no domestic lobbies to pressure the
government on such issues as is prevalent in the West. “That is why one always hears very
politically correct words from Russian political scientists about concerns that Iran is developing
missile capabilities. No one in the Russian political elite is seriously considering the threat of this
development.”24
Second, Moscow wanted to increase trade with Iran, and sanctions hampered these aspirations. In
2013, Russia’s and Iran’s political interests converged more than ever before. Russia’s state-run
Atomstroyexport helped Tehran complete the Bushehr nuclear power plant and officially gave Iran
control of the facility in September 2013. In November 2014, Russia’s state nuclear corporation
Rosatom announced an agreement to build two new reactor units in Iran, possibly to be followed
by six more. As nuclear deal negotiations advanced, the Kremlin highlighted Russia’s
indispensable role in them. He also lifted the freeze on the S-300 sale, and deliveries began in
April 2015, despite Israeli concerns. Putin may have lifted the freeze to strengthen Iran’s hand as
the nuclear negotiations were ending. When the negotiating parties concluded the agreement in
July 2015, Putin praised the nuclear deal and emphasized Russian diplomacy in the process. Some
might argue Tehran did not obtain the best deal from a commercial perspective—by this time
Russia had S-400s and was developing the S-500—but an S-300 is a formidable weapon in its own
right, and should not be discounted.
Third, Russia has been trying to expand its military cooperation with the Islamic Republic. In
August 2016, Moscow used Iran’s Hamadan airbase to bomb targets in Syria. This action surprised
not only the world, but many within Iran itself. Not since World War II did a foreign power base
itself in Iran. The Iranian public was outraged and Iranian Defense Minister Hossein
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Dehghan accused Moscow of “ungentlemanly”25 behavior for publicizing Russia’s use of the
base—but not for the use of the base itself. Furthermore, Iranian Parliament Speaker Ali
Larijani said only days afterwards, “The flights [of Russian warplanes] haven’t been suspended.
Iran and Russia are allies in the fight against terrorism,” though the Hamedan air base, he claimed,
was only “used for refueling.”26 The next month, Putin said that it would be “just” if Iran reached
the pre-sanction’s level of oil production.27 In November 2016, Putin began discussing a $10
billion arms deal with Tehran.28 And in August 2017, Germany’s Die Welt reported that Tehran
was transferring weapons to Russia via Syria for maintenance, which violated United Nations
Security Council Resolution 2231.29 Meanwhile, the Tartus naval base, at least theoretically,
provides Moscow with another opportunity to arm Iranian proxy Hezbollah indirectly through
Syria if it chooses to do so.
Syria
Damascus is historically not only Moscow’s closest ally in the Arab world, but also one of its
biggest arms customers. Putin improved bilateral ties further after meeting with President Bashar
al-Assad in January 2005. Upon the meeting’s conclusion, Moscow announced it would write off
most of Syria’s $13.4 billion debt and sell arms to Damascus in return for Syria’s permission to
establish permanent Russian naval facilities in Tartus and Latakia.30 Soon Russia emerged as
Syria’s primary weapons supplier. From 2007 through 2010, Russian arms sales to Syria reached
$4.7 billion, more than twice the figure for the previous four years.31 According to SIPRI, Russia
accounted for 78 percent of Syria’s weapons purchases between 2007 and 2012. And press reports
indicate that Russian ships have been involved in several Syria-related incidents in international
waters.32
When anti-al-Assad protests broke out in Damascus in March 2011, Putin supported the Syrian
president unequivocally and in multiple ways—politically, diplomatically and economically. But
Moscow’s Syria intervention in September 2015 was a game changer that officially returned
Russia to the Middle East. The Kremlin had many interests in Syria. While, from an arms sales
perspective, it was the perfect advertising arena.
In early October 2015, just days after launching its intervention, Moscow fired 26 cruise missiles
from the Caspian Sea Flotilla. The cruise missiles travelled across Iran and Iraq into Syria to strike
what Moscow claimed were Islamic State targets. From a military standpoint, it was questionable
at best whether strikes from this location were truly necessary.33 For one thing, Moscow could
have easily hit the same targets from Russia’s existing assets in Syria. But the advertising benefits
for Moscow were clear. The attack displayed formidable capabilities of the relatively new Kalibr
cruise missile, which Moscow exports as the shorter-range “Club.” Moscow also showed that even
Russia’s small missile corvettes are quite powerful, and that a country on a budget looking for
strong naval capabilities does not need to pay for a large and expensive ship.34
During the next two years, Moscow amplified Russia’s military presence by expanding the Tartus
port and the Khmeimim airbase. These ensured Russia’s military presence for the next 49 years,
providing Russia with ideal strategic military access to the region while limiting the West’s ability
to maneuver. Indeed, after Putin announced yet another faux “withdrawal” from Syria in December
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2017,35 he almost immediately called for further expanding Russia’s naval presence in Tartus.36
At the same time, Moscow used Syria to test weaponry and equipment in real battles, advertise
these efforts, project power and train the Russian military, especially the pilots. That Moscow went
to great lengths to publicize Russia’s arms exports shows how important the arms sales element
has been for Moscow’s Syria campaign.37
True, Moscow failed to react to American cruise missiles, which flew well within the orbit of
Russia’s S-300s and S-400s. The no-show may seem like a missed advertising opportunity to
display Russian surface-to-air missiles (SAM), but shooting down a cruise missile would have
been a big risk, and could have triggered a major escalation. Shooting down a cruise missile is
much harder than an aircraft. Cruise missiles have much smaller radar cross-section and lower
flight profile.38 Second, when the US launched its Tomahawk cruise missiles, Washington, at least
by some accounts, first told Moscow about its intent and provided specific locations as part of deconfliction
with Russia. Therefore, if Moscow had attempted to intercept an American missile,
Washington would have read this action as a direct challenge, rather than give Moscow the benefit
of the doubt and consider it a mistake.39 Moreover, for all of Putin’s bluster, he presumably knew
the US far outmatched him in the region. A direct military confrontation is not what he sought—
only to create the perception that he might, in order to scare the US into thinking letting him do
what he wanted in Syria was the only option to avoid war.
Meanwhile, Moscow’s advertising efforts paid off. “This [Russia’s Syria operations] is colossal
advertising and Russia expects new purchases worth tens of billions of dollars,” said Alexander
Markov, a political analyst and member of Russia’s Council on Foreign and Defense Politics, in
April 2016.40 More recently, Russian Deputy Defense Minister Yuri Borisov said in August
2017, “Customers have started queuing up for the weapons that have proven themselves in
Syria.”41 To give one example of such success, Russian Su-34 and Su-35 jets, which Moscow
tested and used extensively in Syria, began to sell well.42 China bought 24 Su-35 jets in November
2015, and Algeria ordered 12 Su-34s in January 2016.43 The United Arab Emirates began
discussion with Russia in February 2017 about purchasing Su-35s.44Many other countries have
expressed interest, such as India and Indonesia, but also many African countries, including Nigeria,
Uganda and Ethiopia.45 Russian Deputy Defense Minister Alexander Fomin said, in October 2016,
“[W]e know that the African continent has a great potential and it [cooperation] can be marketoriented
and based on mutual interest.”46 Africa is a region increasingly important to watch for
Russia’s arms sales as a tactic to enter the Sahel.47
North Africa
Speaking at Russia’s annual Valdai conference in October 2016, President Putin said Africa
“cannot be on the periphery of international relations.”48 Indeed, Moscow is looking at the entire
African continent, whose demand for military hardware is growing as GDP rises. In the context of
Western sanctions and the Kremlin’s desire to boost Russia’s global power status, reduce Western
influence, and make money to keep the Russian government afloat, Putin has already made strides
in much of Africa that are impossible to ignore.49 North Africa is a major part of his calculus.
According to Russian sources, in 2016 Moscow delivered over $1.5 billion in arms to Algeria and
$37 million to Egypt.50
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Moscow’s relationship with Cairo, steadily on the rise in recent years, is most robust in the military
sector. In September 2014, Russia and Egypt initialed arms contracts worth $3.5 billion, their
largest deal in many years, to be funded by Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The
contract reportedly stipulates that Russia will supply the Egyptian military with MiG-29 fighter
jets, Mi-35 attack helicopters, air-defense missile complexes, ammunition, and other equipment.
There is no direct evidence that the transaction has happened yet, although according to some
credible reports in July 2016, Russia began building 46 MiG-29M fighter jets as part of a contract
worth at least $2 billion. No public information about the recipient is available, but Egypt is
probably the leading candidate.51
Regardless of whether or not Egypt is indeed the buyer in question, Russian-Egyptian military
cooperation is visibly growing. The two countries held their first joint naval drills in June 2015,
and other military exercises in October 2016.52 In September 2017, Cairo finalized negotiations
with Moscow to build Egypt’s first nuclear power plant, approximately two years after inking a
preliminary agreement in February 2015.53 According to later reports in spring 2016, Moscow will
lend Egypt $25 billion for construction.54 In this context, it is worth recalling that Cairo used to be
Washington’s partner on energy cooperation as part of the George W. Bush administration’s
Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP).55 President Barack Obama, however, effectively
scrapped parts of GNEP in June 2009 56 and showed little interest in expanding an energy
partnership with Egypt. This episode provided a gap for Putin to move in.
In November 2017, Moscow and Cairo began to discuss an agreement to allow Russia and Egypt
to access the other’s airspace and air bases, perhaps the clearest sign of growing bilateral military
cooperation.57 In March 2017, Moscow deployed special forces to Egypt on the Libyan border,
signaling Russia’s growing role in that country.58
Libya historically is another major Russian arms customer. Following NATO’s 2011 intervention,
Russia lost billions of dollars’ worth of arms contracts in Libya. While the Russian government
and analysts typically quantified this loss at $4 to $4.5 billion, “the real lost revenue,” according
to Mikhail Dmitriyev, who heads Russia’s Federal Service on Military and Technical Cooperation,
“could top tens of billions of dollars.”59 Lost contracts covered a wide range of military equipment,
including Su-35 fighters, Yak130 combat and training planes, Project 636 submarines, advanced
S-300 systems, Mi-17 transport helicopters, and many others. Importantly, Moscow also lost
access to the port of Benghazi. Libya is a good candidate for another potential Moscow
intervention under the guise of fighting Islamic terrorism, albeit on a smaller scale than in Syria.
As a result of Western disinterest in Libya, Putin has been able to insert himself, both in leaning
heavily on General Khalifa Haftar in Libya’s oil-rich east, and by establishing contacts with all
other major actors on the ground. Putin is now reportedly eyeing Tobruk and other ports for
potential berthing agreements.60 Such a development would entail significant Russian investment,
but a permanent naval presence in Libya by Russia as a regional power broker is a serious
possibility.
Moscow is also making some headway in Tunisia. In June 2015, Moscow signed a Memorandum
of Understanding on nuclear cooperation with Tunisia “[f]or the first time in the history of Russian-
Tunisian relations,” according to Rosatom, Russia’s state nuclear regulatory corporation.61 In
September 2016 the memorandum was expanded into a nuclear cooperation agreement.62 Morocco
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is a traditionally Western ally, but reportedly, the country is talking with Moscow about purchasing
S-400s.63 In October 2016, the two countries signed 11 agreements, and Russian Prime Minister
Dmitry Medvedev announced Russia’s decision to “deliver military equipment” to Morocco,
though he did not disclose details.64
Algeria has long been in Moscow’s camp and remained a top buyer of Russian arms throughout
the 2000s. Since 2001, when Russia and Algeria signed a declaration of strategic partnership,
bilateral relations have been strongest in the military sector. In 2006, Russia concluded a $7.5
billion arms deal with Algeria, its largest post-Soviet weapons sale, which included a military
modernization and training program and cancelation of a $4.7 billion Soviet-era debt. In 2014, the
two countries signed a $1 billion arms deal, which a Russian military expert in business-oriented
Vedomosti described as “possibly the largest export contract for main battle tanks in the world.”65
Weapons sales from Russia in 2010, 2012, 2013 and 2015 provided Algeria with additional
military equipment, including helicopters, tanks and submarines. In 2016, Algeria and Russia also
began sharing intelligence on terrorist group movement across North Africa, and they announced
additional plans for deeper military cooperation.
The Arab Persian Gulf and Turkey
The West traditionally dominates the Gulf arms market, but the Kremlin has always courted this
region. For Moscow, it is important to compete with the West. And as an added benefit, Gulf
customers are wealthy and can pay full price for Russian weaponry, unlike clients such as Egypt.
Indeed, the UAE has been among major buyers of Russian arms in the 1990s and early 2000s.
Russia’s relations with this region deteriorated significantly during the Syrian conflict, with
Russians and Arabs generally lining up on opposite sides. Despite this, interest in Russian arms
among Arab states remains. In February 2017, the UAE signed a letter of intent to purchase the
Sukhoi Su-35, as mentioned above.66 Only China currently buys these jets from Russia. The
Emirates has also purchased ground weapons from Russia, such as BMP-3 infantry combat
vehicles and Pantsir S1 air-defense systems. In February 2017, the UAE also signed $1.9 billion
worth of military contracts, which reportedly includes 5,000 anti-armor missiles, in addition to
training and logistic support. The country also started talks with Rostec about the development of
a fifth-generation MiG-29 aircraft variant; though experts are skeptical, the UAE can co-produce.
Very few countries can produce a fifth-generation fighter aircraft. Theoretically, Russia can, but it
only recently began production of fourth-generation Su-34s developed in the 1980s.67
Reportedly, Qatar is also talking to Russia about purchasing S-400s, and here the discussion
appears more realistic. In October 2017, Moscow and Doha signed a military and technical
cooperation Memorandum of Understanding, according to TASS,68 and the Qatari government
apparently expressed interest in purchasing the S-400s.69
In October 2017, Saudi King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud became the first ever Saudi monarch
to visit Russia. The fact that the visit occurred shows how much influence Putin has achieved in
the Middle East. Upon the meeting’s conclusion, Salman and Putin signed a packet of documents
on energy, trade and defense, and they agreed to several billion dollars’ worth of joint investment.70
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Reportedly, Saudi Arabia also decided to purchase Russia’s S-400 air defense system, making it,
after Turkey, the second American ally to do so.71
Russia’s presence in Iraq is relatively small but important. In 2012, the Kremlin signed a $4 billion
arms deal with the Iraqi government—one of the larger arms deals of Putin’s tenure. This
agreement places Russia as the second largest arms supplier to Iraq after the United States.72
Reportedly, Moscow began deliveries in October 2013, after a delay due to internal corruption
claims in the Iraqi parliament.73 The same month Putin identified Iraq as an important Middle East
partner and announced Russia’s readiness, in this context, to help Iraq, including through
“military-technical” cooperation.74
In the early 2000s the Kremlin began expanding areas of cooperation with Turkey, a NATO
member, and these included modest arms contracts.75 But in September 2017, in the context of
deteriorating relations with the West, Turkey signed what many called a landmark $2.5 billion
deal, Ankara’s first major arms agreement with Russia, to purchase the S-400 missile system.76
The deal raises several questions. First, the Russian system is not compatible with NATO systems.
Second, it is unclear how Turkey intends to use the S-400. Some question whether the deal will go
through at all, but the fact of the matter is, the signing alone is significant. It shows how much
influence Putin has gained with the NATO ally, who for years now has increasingly turned away
from Western democratic values. Nor should analysts dismiss the possibility that the deal will go
through either, as Turkey is falling deeper into Moscow’s sphere of influence.
Conclusion
Russia’s defense industry is not without problems. As mentioned previously, Russian weaponry
often lags far behind the United States in terms of effectiveness or technological innovation. China,
meanwhile, wields a level of commercial influence Russia cannot compete with; and indeed, some
countries, such as Algeria, are increasingly looking toward China, even as Algiers signed its
blockbuster deal with Moscow. China is also starting to dominate in high-growth areas such as
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), where Russia is no match.77 Another element is Western
sanctions on Russian dual-use high-technology imports, especially effective toward Russia’s
defense industry. Commercially available technologies such as microelectronics and quantum
computing have increasingly important modern military applications, but Russia cannot produce
them independently. It has tried to resort to import substitution, but so far with poor results. In
addition, Russian weapons met no real opposition in Syria. Therefore, despite Moscow’s tests and
displays, questions about the full extent of these weapons’ capabilities remain.
Nonetheless, there is no denying that Putin is making great strides overall in the MENA region
since May 2000, and more recently in the defense sector as part of Russia’s tactic to use weapons
sales to garner closer relations with Arab states at the expense of the US and Europe. Moscow’s
military reform efforts since 2008 have clearly paid off, and arms sales have been an effective
tactical tool in Moscow’s foreign policy arsenal. In dollar terms at least, Russian arms sales to the
Middle East continue to increase every year. In addition, the advantages Russian arms offer to this
region continue to outweigh the disadvantages, both practically and politically. Russia’s overall
economic trajectory is on a slow and long-term path of deterioration, but still nowhere near a
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collapse. As a July 2016 NATO Defense College report points out, the West should not confuse
Russia’s weakness with fragility.78 Even if Moscow boasts more than it achieves in reality, the
Kremlin has been playing a diminishing hand very well. While most US defense experts believe
Russia will be unable to produce much next-generation weaponry, Moscow is making significant
strides with its existing technology. Russian arms are sufficient for most of Moscow’s clients—
particularly those who cannot afford top-of-the-line American technology. In the context of US
retreat from the region, Moscow has stepped into a vacuum where the Kremlin’s efforts generate
a multiplier effect of real power. As long as US leadership is absent from the region, Russia’s arms
sales to the Middle East and North Africa will remain a serious problem for American interests.
Endnotes
1 Christopher Woody, “The US and Russia are dominating the global weapons trade,” Business Insider, December
28, 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/us-russia-global-arms-sales-2016-12.
2 Richard Connolly and Cecilie Sendstad, Russia’s Role as an Arms Exporter: The Strategic and Economic
Importance of Arms Exports for Russia, Chatham House, p 5, https://www.chathamhouse.org/publication/russiasrole-
arms-exporter-strategic-and-economic-importance-arms-exports-russia.
3 Based on data author obtained from IHS Jane’s on November 23, 2017.
4 Author interview with anonymous US aviation source, November 14, 2017, Washington, DC.
5 Robert O. Freedman, “Russian Policy toward the Middle East under Yeltsin and Putin, Jerusalem
Letter/Viewpoints 461 (Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, September 2, 2001), http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp461.htm.
6 Vladimir Putin, Decree, “Realization of the Plans for the Development of the Armed Forces and the Modernization
of the Defense Industry,” May 7, 2012, http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/15242.
7 “Russia and the Changing World,” RT, February 27, 2012, available at https://www.rt.com/politics/officialword/
putin-russia-changing-world-263/.
8 “Глава "Ростеха" сообщил о росте продаж: ‘Чем больше конфликтов, тем больше у нас покупают
вооружения’” Newsru.com, February 23, 2015 http://www.newsru.com/russia/23feb2015/chemezov.html.
9 President of Russia, Meeting of the Commission for military technology cooperation with foreign states,”
Kremlin.ru, July 2, 2012, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/15865.
10 “Rogozin: Russia Ranks Second in the World on Export Supply of Military Goods,” Daily News Light, December
11, 2013, http://dailynewslight.ru/?u=11122013868.
11 Author email exchanges with SPIRI, November 2017.
12Richard Connolly and Cecilie Sendstad, Russia’s Role as an Arms Exporter: The Strategic and Economic
Importance of Arms Exports for Russia,Chatham House, p 5, https://www.chathamhouse.org/publication/russiasrole-
arms-exporter-strategic-and-economic-importance-arms-exports-russia.
13 SIPRI has developed a system called “trend indicator values” (TIV), rather than actual dollar values. For a more
detailed explanation see: SIPRI has developed a unique system to measure the volume of international transfers of
major conventional weapons using a common unit, the trend-indicator value (TIV).
14Author interview with anonymous US aviation source, November 14, 2017, Washington, DC.
12
15 Thomas Gibbons-Neff, “Pentagon: Some Russian cruise missiles crashed in Iran,” The Washington Post, October
8, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/10/07/these-are-the-cruise-missiles-russia-justsent-
into-syria/.
16 Author interview with anonymous US aviation source, November 14, 2017, Washington, DC.
17 Ibid.
18 Unless the US grants special permission.
19 “Gore's Secret Pact,” October 18, 2000 The Wall Street Journal,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB971819748452949326.
20 Ariel Cohen and James A. Phillips, “Countering Russian-Iranian Military Cooperation,” Backgrounder 1425 on
Russia (Heritage Foundation, April 5, 2001), http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2001/04/counteringrussianiranian-
military-cooperation.
21 For example, a recent survey of Syrian refugees in Germany—the first survey of Syrian refugees in Europe—
found that approximately 70 percent of Syrian refugees are fleeing Assad. Complete survey results are available at
http://washin.st/1RMy3sj. According to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), at the
end of 2013 the total number of displaced people worldwide, for the first time since World War II, surpassed 51
million, a 6-million-person increase over the previous year. This rise, UNHCR found, is due largely to the Syria
crisis. See UNHCR, “World Refugee Day: Global Forced Displacement Tops 50 Million for First Time in Post–
World War II Era,” June 20, 2014, http://www.unhcr.org/53a155bc6.html.
22 The five permanent United Nations Security Council members United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia
and China, plus Germany.
23 Indeed, Russian Middle East expert Georgiy Mirsky wrote in his blog on the liberal website Echo Moskvy in April
2015, “Several years ago, I heard from the lips of one MIA [Ministry of Internal Affairs] employee such reasoning:
‘For us, a pro-American Iran is worse than a nuclear Iran.’ ”
24 Quoted in Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Proliferation Brief, Vol. 3, no. 22, July 25, 2000, Richard
Speier, “Iran-Russia Missile Cooperation Richard Speier, Rober Gallucci, Robbie Sabel, Viktor Mizin,” section
“The Russian View,” http://carnegieendowment.org/files/Repairing_12.pdf.
25 Anne Barnard, Andre E. Kramer, “Iran Revokes Russia’s Use of Air Base, Saying Moscow ‘Betrayed Trust’” The
New York Times, August 22, 2016 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/30/world/middleeast/syria-talksgeneva.
html?ribbon-adidx=
3&rref=world/middleeast&module=ArrowsNav&contentCollection=Middle%20East&action=swipe®ion=F
ixedRight&pgtype=article.
26 Allen Cone, “Russia gets permission to use Iran's Hamadan air base for Syria airstrikes,” UPI, November 30,
2016, https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/11/30/Russia-gets-permission-to-use-Irans-Hamadan-airbase-
for-Syria-airstrikes/8251480520159/.
27 “Путин: справедливо, если Иран достигнет досанкционного уровня добычи нефти,” RIA Novosti,September
5, 2016, https://ria.ru/economy/20160905/1476118270.html.
28 Adam Kredo, “US officials ‘concerned’ as Iran, Russia plan $10 billion arms deal,” November 15, 2016,
http://www.foxnews.com/world/2016/11/15/us-officials-concerned-as-iran-russia-plan-10-billion-arms-deal.html.
29 Von Christina Brause, Julia Smirnova, and Walter Wolowelsk, “Neue Schmuggelroute zwischen Russland und
dem Iran,” Welt N24 TV (Berlin), August 13, 2017, https://www.welt.de/politik/ausland/article167624550/Neue-
Schmuggelroute-zwischen-Russland-und-dem-Iran.html.
13
30 Van Hipp, “Russia’s Putin Is Making His Moves in Syria and Beyond,” Fox News, June 27, 2012,
http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2012/06/27/russia-putin-is-making-his-moves-in-syria-and-beyond.html; Ariel
Cohen, “Russia’s Troubling Arms Sales,” Washington Times, March 19, 2007,
http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/19/20070319-0920463099r/print/.
31 Richard F. Grimmett, “Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 2003–2010,” Congressional
Research Service, September 22, 2011, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/R42017.pdf. See also reference in
David M. Herszenhorn, “For Syria, Reliant on Russia for Weapons and Food, Old Bonds Run Deep,” New York
Times, February 18, 2012, http:// www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/world/middleeast/for-russia-and-syriabonds-areold-
and-deep.html.
32 See for example the following articles:
“A Ship Comes Loaded with Timber...or Weapons?” Utrikesperspektiv, December 12, 2013,
http://utrikesperspektiv.se/?p=348.208; “Russia Denies Hijacked Ship Was Carrying Missiles,” CNN, September 8,
2009, http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/09/08/russia.missing.ship/index.html?iref=nextin; Luke Harding,
Michael Schwirtz, “More Questions about a Hijacked Ship,” New York Times, October 10, 2009,
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/11/world/europe/11arctic.html?_r=0.209; Interfax, “EU Rapporteur Presumes
Arctic Sea Transported Russian Missiles,” August 19, 2009, https://archive.is/RWW5z.210.
33 Dave Majumdar, “Cruise Missile Strikes in Syria: Russia's Big Ad Campaign?” The National Interest, October 8,
2015 http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/cruise-missile-strikes-syria-russias-big-ad-campaign-14032.
34 Dave Majumdar, “Cruise Missile Strikes in Syria: Russia's Big Ad Campaign?” The National Interest, October 8,
2015, http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/cruise-missile-strikes-syria-russias-big-ad-campaign-14032; Thomas
Gibbons-Neff, “Pentagon: Some Russian cruise missiles crashed in Iran,” The Washington Post, October 8, 2015,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/10/07/these-are-the-cruise-missiles-russia-just-sentinto-
syria/.
35 In March 2016, for example, Putin announced a withdrawal of the “main part” of Russia’s armed forces in Syria,
but in reality Russia’s presence continued to grow.
36 “Putin Asks Lawmakers to Expand Russia's Navy Presence in Syria,” The Moscow Times, December 13, 2017,
https://themoscowtimes.com/news/patin-asks-lawmakers-to-expand-russias-navy-presence-in-syria-
59928?utm_source=push&utm_medium=push&utm_campaign=131217.
37 Alex Luhn, Russia's campaign in Syria leads to arms sale windfall,” The Guardian,
March 29, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/29/russias-campaign-in-syria-leads-to-arms-salewindfall;
Andrew O’Reilly, “Russian sale of fighter jets to UAE highlights shift toward Kremlin amid US
hesitancy,” Fox News, March 2, 2017, http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/03/02/russian-sale-fighter-jets-to-uaehighlights-
shift-toward-kremlin-amid-u-s-hesitancy.html; “Going Global: Russian Su-34 on the Way to Become
Export Bestseller,” Sputnik, June 1, 2016, https://sputniknews.com/military/201601061032735202-russia-su34-
bomber-algeria/.
38 Author email exchange with anonymous US aviation source, December 7–9, 2017.
39 Author conversation with anonymous US aviation sources, Washington, DC, December 7, 2017.
40 Mansur Mirovalev, “Syria’s war: A showroom for Russian arms sales,” Al Jazeera, April 6, 2016,
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/syria-war-showroom-russian-arms-sales-160406135130398.html.
41 Vladimir Isachenkov, “Russia hoping to boost arms sales after Syrian usage,” DefenseNews.com, August 30,
2017, https://www.defensenews.com/global/asia-pacific/2017/08/30/russia-hoping-to-boost-arms-sales-after-syrianusage/.
42 Daniel Brown, “Russia is using Syria as a testing ground for some of its most advanced weapons,” Business
Insider, May 24, 2017, http://www.businessinsider.com/russia-is-using-syria-testing-ground-some-advancedweapons-
2017-5.
14
43 Oscar Nkala Algeria Orders 12 Su-34 'Fullback' Fighter-Bombers from Russia,” DefenseNews.com, January 5, 2016,
https://www.defensenews.com/home/2016/01/05/algeria-orders-12-su-34-fullback-fighter-bombers-from-russia/.
44 Giovanni de Briganti “UAE Swings to Russia for Future Combat Aviation,” Defense-Aerospace.com, February
21, 2017, http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/feature/5/181311/uae-swings-to-russia-for-futurecombat-
aviation%2C-signs-3-agreements.html.
45 “Russia Faces High Demand for Su-34, Su-35 Jets After Success in Syria,” Sputnik, April 5, 2016,
https://sputniknews.com/military/201604051037515495-su-jets-potential-buyers/; “Going Global: Russian Su-34 on
the Way to Become Export Bestseller,” Sputnik, January 6, 2016,
https://sputniknews.com/military/201601061032735202-russia-su34-bomber-algeria/.
46 “Putin says Russia wants to restore cooperation with African countries,” Russia Beyond the Headlines October
12, 2016, https://www.rbth.com/news/2016/10/12/putin-says-russia-wants-to-restore-cooperation-with-africancountries_
638253.
47 Theodore Karasik and Giorgio Cafiero, “Why does Vladimir Putin see in Sudan?” The Atlantic Council,
November 27, 2017, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/why-does-vladimir-putin-care-aboutsudan.
48 “Путин заявил, что Африка не может быть на периферии международных отношений,” RIA Novosti,
October 27, 2016, https://ria.ru/world/20161027/1480166410.html.
49 For example, The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute announced in December 2011 that Russia
supplied 11 percent of major arms to sub-Saharan Africa, as reported in: “Russia eyes Africa to boost arms sales,”
The Guardian, April 4, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/04/arms-trade-africa; see also; Eugene
Steinberg, “Revealed: Russia's Mighty Pivot to Africa,” The National Interest, October 14, 2015,
http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/revealed-russias-mighty-pivot-africa-13585. Sudan is also looking to Russia
for assistance in upgrading its armed forces: “Russia to help Sudan upgrade its armed forces,” TASS, November 23,
2017, http://tass.com/defense/977087http://tass.com/defense/977087. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir visited
Moscow that month and asked Moscow for “protection” from the US and Sudan could become “a key to Africa for
Russia.” The International Criminal Court wants Bashir for a number of crimes, including genocide: see “Sudan's
President Visits Russia, Asks for Protection From US,” Voice of America, November 23, 2017,
https://www.voanews.com/a/sudan-president-visits-russia-asks-for-protection-from-us/4131704.html.
50 Andrei Akulov, “Russia’s Arms Sales to Middle East Countries Spike to Record-High
Levels,”StrategicCulture.org, November 18, 2017, https://www.strategic-culture.org/pview/2017/11/18/russia-armssales-
middle-east-countries-spike-record-high-levels.html.
51 Matthew Bodner, “Who Is Russia Secretly Supplying With MiGs?” The Moscow Times, July 20, 2016,
https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/mig-aircraft-company-finds-savior-in-egypt-54642.
52 Damien Sharkov, “Russia and Egypt hold first ever joint naval drill,” June 12, 2015,
http://www.newsweek.com/russia-militaryrussian-navyrussiaegyptkremlin-603690; “Russia, Egypt start first joint
military exercise in the desert,” October 16, 2016, https://dailynewsegypt.com/2016/10/16/russia-egypt-start-firstjoint-
military-exercise-desert/.
53 Associated Press, “Egypt Finalizes Deal With Russia for First Nuclear Plant,” Voice of America, September 4,
2017, https://www.voanews.com/a/egypt-finalizes-deal-with-russia-for-first-nuclear-plant/4014549.html.
54 Reuters Staff, “Russia to lend Egypt $25 billion to build nuclear power plant,” Reuters, May 19, 2016,
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-russia-nuclear/russia-to-lend-egypt-25-billion-to-build-nuclear-powerplant-
idUSKCN0YA1G5.
55 It aimed to create an international partnership, which would advance safe and extensive global expansion of
nuclear power through so-called “cradle-to-grave fuel services” within a regulated market for enriched uranium,
15
where several large countries would provide enriched uranium to smaller countries. This plan aimed to address
crucial concerns about nuclear weapons proliferation and waste management, and to eliminate the need for smaller
countries to build facilities for uranium processing and disposal in the first place, saving them billions.
56 Federal Register, Vol. 74, No 123, June 29, 2009,
https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/nepapub/nepa_documents/RedDont/EIS-0396-Cancellation-2009.pdf.
57 “Russia, Egypt in Talks to Sign Airbase Deal,” The Moscow Times, November 30, 2017,
https://themoscowtimes.com/news/russia-egypt-in-talks-to-sign-airbase-deal-59766.
58 Phil Stewart, Idrees Ali and Lin Noueihed, “Exclusive: Russia appears to deploy forces in Egypt, eyes on Libya
role – sources,” Reuters, March 13, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-libya-exclusive/exclusiverussia-
appears-to-deploy-forces-in-egypt-eyes-on-libya-role-sources-idUSKBN16K2RY.
59 Alexei Anishchuk, “Gaddafi Fall Cost Russia Tens of Blns in Arms Deals,” Reuters, November 2, 2011,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/02/russia-libya-arms-idUSL5E7M221H20111102.
60 Theodore Karasik and Jeremy Vaughn, “Middle East Maritime Security: The Growing Role of Regional and
Extraregional Navies.” Washington Institute Near East Policy, Policy Notes 41, September 2017,
http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/middle-east-maritime-security.
61 “Russia and Tunisia sign nuclear MOU,” World Nuclear News, June 2, 2015, http://www.world-nuclearnews.
org/NP-Russia-and-Tunisia-sign-nuclear-MOU-02061503.html.
62 Rosatom, “Tunisia and Russia signed an Intergovernmental Agreement on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,”
September 26, 2016, http://www.rosatom.ru/en/press-centre/news/tunisia-and-russia-signed-an-intergovernmentalagreement-
on-peaceful-uses-of-atomic-energy/.
63 Christopher Woody, “The US and Russia are dominating the global weapons trade,” Business Insider, December
28, 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/us-russia-global-arms-sales-2016-12.
64 Associated Press, “Russian Prime Minister Strikes Energy Deals in Morocco,” Voice of America, October 11,
2017, https://www.voanews.com/a/russian-prime-minister-strikes-energy-deals-in-morocco-/4066941.html.
65 Alexei Nikolskiy, “Заключен контракт по лицензионному производству танков Т-90 в Алжире,
https://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2015/02/20/tank-alzhirskoi-sborki.
66 “UAE wants to buy over a squadron of Su-35 advanced fighter jets from Russia,” TASS, October 3, 2017,
http://tass.com/defense/968593.
67 Author email exchanges with military experts, Washington, DC, November 2017.
68 “Russia, Qatar sign agreement on military and technical cooperation,” TASS, October 25, 2017
http://tass.com/defense/972547.
69 “Qatar turns its back on the US as it looks to Moscow for missiles,” The New Arab, August 25, 2017,
https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2017/8/25/qatar-interested-in-s-400-missile-deal-with-russia.
70 Agreements signed upon conclusion of Saudi-Russian negotiations, October 5, 2017,
http://kremlin.ru/supplement/5236.
71 Reuters, “Saudi Arabia to buy S-400 air defense system from Russia,” Haaretz, October 5, 2017,
https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/1.815867.
72 Russia to Become Iraq’s Second-Biggest Arms Supplier,” BBC, October 9, 2012,
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-19881858.
16
73 United Press International, “Iraq Gets Russian Arms Shipments under Landmark $4.4B Deal,” October 21, 2013,
http://washin.st/23s7HzF.
74 “Presentation of foreign ambassadors’ letters of credence,” Kremlin.ru, October 23, 2013,
http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/19478.
75 Robert O. Freedman, “Russia and the Middle East under Putin,” Ortadogu Etutleri 2, no. 3 (July 2010): p. 26,
http://www.orsam.org.tr/en/enUploads/Article/Files/201082_robertfeedman.orsam.etutler.pdf; “Russia Offers Gas to
Turks,” Kommersant, November 24, 2000, http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/161412; Turkish Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, “Turkey’s Political Relations with Russian Federation,” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey_s-politicalrelationswith-
russian-federation.en.mfa.
76 Fulya Ozerkan, “Turkey Signs Landmark Russian Weapons Deal,” September 12, 2017,
https://www.military.com/daily-news/2017/09/12/turkey-signs-landmark-russian-weapons-deal.html.
77 Author telephone interview with Ben Moores, analyst, IHS Jane’s, November 23, 2017.
78 Richard Connolly, Towards Self Sufficiency? Economics as a Dimension of Russian Security and the National
Security Strategy of the Russian Federation to 2020, NATO Defense College, July 18, 2016,
http://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=96432.
