Friday, September 4, 2026

Selim Yenel (E. Büyükelçi) - 3 Eylul 2026 - Büyük Güçlerin Başarısız Savaşları

 Ana Sayfa

Büyük Güçlerin Başarısız Savaşları

Büyük Güçlerin Başarısız Savaşları
Yirmi birinci yüzyılın dörtte birini geride bırakırken uluslararası ilişkiler bakımından dikkat çekici bir gelişme yaşanıyor: Dünyanın en büyük askerî güçleri, sahip oldukları ezici askerî üstünlüğü siyasi başarıya dönüştürmekte giderek daha fazla zorlanıyorlar.

Bu dönemde ABD Afganistan’da yirmi yıl savaştı ve sonunda geçmişte İngilizlerin ve Sovyetlerin yaşadığına benzer biçimde, istediği siyasi sonucu elde edemeden çekilmek zorunda kaldı. Rusya ise Ukrayna’da beşinci yılına yaklaşan bir savaşa girişti ve başlangıçta öngördüğü sonuçları sağlayamadı. ABD de Başkan Trump’ın seçim kampanyasında verdiği sözlerin aksine altı ay önce İran’a karşı savaşa girdi. Ancak bugün itibarıyla bu savaşta da ufukta belirgin bir başarı veya kesin bir sonuç görünmüyor.

Öte yandan nükleer silaha sahip olduğunu hiçbir zaman resmen kabul etmeyen, ancak böyle bir kapasiteye sahip olduğu yaygın biçimde düşünülen İsrail, Hamas ve Hizbullah’a ağır darbeler vurmasına rağmen bu örgütleri ortadan kaldıramadı. İsrail Başbakanı Binyamin Netanyahu’nun Başkan Trump’ı İran’a karşı askerî harekâta yönlendirmesinin ardından savaşın ağırlık merkezi giderek ABD’ye kaymış durumda. İran ise ayakta ve karşılık vermeye devam ediyor.

Bütün bu örnekler, önemli bir gerçeği düşündürüyor: Askerî üstünlük ile siyasi zafer artık aynı anlama gelmiyor. Büyük güçler karşılarındaki taraflara büyük zarar verebiliyor, altyapılarını tahrip edebiliyor ve askerî kapasitelerini önemli ölçüde zayıflatabiliyorlar. Ancak bütün bunları, hedefledikleri siyasi sonucu elde etmek için yeterli hale getiremiyorlar.

Saldıran taraf ile savunmada kalan taraf arasındaki en önemli farklardan biri de burada ortaya çıkıyor. Saldıran taraf çatışmaya kendi tercihiyle giriyor ve belirli bir hedefe ulaşmak zorunda. Savunmada kalan taraf için ise mücadele çoğu zaman varoluşsal bir nitelik taşıyor. Bu nedenle savunan tarafın dayanma gücü, saldırganın başlangıçta yaptığı hesapları zaman içinde bozabiliyor.

Savaşın kazanılması yetmiyor

İkinci Dünya Savaşı bu açıdan ilginç bir örnektir. Nazi Almanyası savaşın ilk yıllarında komşularına karşı büyük askerî başarılar elde etti. Ancak Sovyetler Birliği’ne ve İngiltere’ye karşı açtığı savaş, sonunda Almanya'nın kendisini savunma durumuna düşürdü. Nazi Almanyası ancak ABD, Sovyetler Birliği ve İngiltere başta olmak üzere büyük güçlerin birleşmesi ve çok ağır kayıpları göze alması sonucunda yenilebildi.

Japonya’ya karşı savaşta ise durum farklıydı. Japon adalarının işgalinin son derece uzun ve kanlı olacağı anlaşıldığında ABD atom bombalarını kullandı. Japonya bundan sonra teslim oldu.

Son elli yıl içerisinde gerçekten başarılı bir savaş örneği arandığında Birinci Körfez Savaşı öne çıkıyor. Bunun önemli bir nedeni, savaşın hedefinin açık ve sınırlı olmasıydı: Irak’ın Kuveyt’ten çıkarılması. ABD’nin Birleşmiş Milletler şemsiyesi altında oluşturduğu geniş koalisyon, bu hedefe ulaştı ve ardından Irak’a doğru ilerlemek yerine savaşı sona erdirdi.

İkinci Körfez Savaşı ise tamamen farklı bir hikâyeydi. ABD, sonradan büyük ölçüde dayanaksız olduğu ortaya çıkan kitle imha silahları iddiaları çerçevesinde Irak’ı işgal etti. Irak ordusu kısa sürede yenildi ve Saddam Hüseyin rejimi devrildi. Ancak asıl sorun bundan sonra başladı. Vaşington’un Irak’ta demokrasi kurma ve ülkeyi yeniden şekillendirme hedefi beklenen sonucu vermedi. Askerî zafer elde edilmişti ama siyasi sonuç alınamamıştı.

Bu ayrım bugün yaşanan savaşları anlamak bakımından da önem taşıyor.

Asimetrik savaşların dönemi

Günümüzde büyük güçlerle daha zayıf devletler veya devlet dışı aktörler arasındaki çatışmalar giderek daha fazla asimetrik bir nitelik kazanıyor. Askerî bakımdan zayıf olan taraf, karşısındaki büyük güce aynı yöntemlerle karşılık vermek yerine farklı araçlar kullanıyor.

Afganistan bunun en çarpıcı örneklerinden biriydi. Vaşington, desteklediği hükümeti ayakta tutmak için yirmi yıl boyunca milyarlarca dolar harcadı. Ancak Taliban, ABD’nin ülkede sonsuza kadar kalamayacağını biliyordu ve bekledi. ABD çekildikten kısa süre sonra Taliban yeniden iktidara geldi.

Bu savaşın en ağır sonuçlarından birini ise Afganistan’daki kadınlar yaşamaya devam ediyor.

Rusya’nın Ukrayna savaşı da büyük güçlerin hesaplarının ne kadar kolay bozulabileceğini gösterdi. Moskova başlangıçta Ukrayna’daki yönetimi kısa sürede değiştirebileceğini ve Belarus gibi kendisine yakın bir hükümet oluşturabileceğini düşünmüş idi. Savaşın başlangıcındaki gelişmeler bu beklentilerin gerçekleşmediğini gösterdi. Ukrayna beklenenden çok daha güçlü bir direnç ortaya koydu ve savaş uzadıkça Rusya’nın başlangıçtaki hedefleri ile bugün ulaşabileceği sonuçlar arasındaki fark büyüdü.

İran savaşı ise henüz tamamlanmamış bir örnek. ABD ve İsrail başlangıçta İran’daki rejimi değiştirmek ve Tahran’ın nükleer silah edinmesini engellemek gibi hedeflerden söz ettiler. Ancak savaş uzadıkça rejimin daha da sertleşmesi ihtimali ortaya çıkarken İran’ın nükleer çalışmalarının geleceği de belirsizliğini koruyor. Bunun yanında, dünya enerji ticareti bakımından hayati öneme sahip Hürmüz Boğazı’nın güvenliği de savaşın önemli sonuçlarından biri haline geldi. Daha önce gündemde olmayan Hürmüz Boğazının durumu öncelikli hale geliverdi.

Savaşın nasıl sonuçlanacağını bugün kimse kesin olarak bilmiyor. Ancak şu ana kadarki gelişmeler, İran’ın da kolayca teslim olacak bir ülke olmadığını gösteriyor.

Sırada Çin mi var?

Dünyanın diğer büyük nükleer gücü Çin’in önünde ise Tayvan meselesi bulunuyor. 

Çin’in Tayvan’ı kendi topraklarının bir parçası olarak gördüğü ve gerektiğinde güç kullanma seçeneğini masada tuttuğu biliniyor. Uzun süredir Çin’in Tayvan’a karşı bir askerî harekâta girişebileceği tartışılıyor. Özellikle 2027 yılı bu tartışmalarda önemli bir tarih olarak öne çıktı. Bununla birlikte 2027’yi kesin bir saldırı tarihi olarak görmek doğru olmayabilir. Daha önemli olan, Çin’in askerî kapasitesini geliştirmeye devam etmesi ve Tayvan konusunda siyasi hedefinden vazgeçmemesidir.

Burada ABD’nin tutumu belirleyici olacaktır. Başkan Trump’ın seleflerinden farklı olarak ABD’nin Tayvan’ı savunma konusunda kendisini ne ölçüde bağlamak istediği konusunda soru işaretleri bulunmaktadır.

Dahası, ABD’nin İran savaşı nedeniyle askerî kaynaklarının önemli bir bölümünü Orta Doğu’ya yönlendirmesi ve mühimmat stoklarının baskı altına girmesi, Çin açısından dikkatle izlenmesi gereken bir durumdur. Ancak bundan Çin’in mutlaka böyle bir fırsatı değerlendireceği sonucu çıkarılmamalıdır.

Çünkü Tayvan’a saldırmak, Afganistan’a, Irak’a veya Ukrayna’ya saldırmaktan çok farklı olacaktır. Bir ada işgalinin gerektirdiği askerî operasyon son derece karmaşıktır. Çin ordusu da uzun süredir büyük çaplı gerçek bir savaşa girmemiştir. Ayrıca Tayvan açısından savaşın doğrudan bir varoluş mücadelesi olması, savunma iradesini çok yüksek bir seviyeye çıkarabilir.

Çin’in de ABD ve Rusya’nın son yıllardaki savaş deneyimlerini dikkatle izlediğini düşünmek gerekir.

Lider faktörü

ABD, Rusya ve Çin’in günümüzdeki karar alma sistemleri arasında önemli farklılıklar bulunmasına rağmen üç ülkede de liderin kişisel kararlarının dış politika üzerinde çok büyük etkisi olduğu görülüyor.

Bu durum, liderin ruh halini veya kişisel dünya görüşünü önemli hale getirdiği kadar, kendisine sunulan bilgilerin niteliğini de kritik hale getiriyor. Lider ne kadar güçlü olursa olsun, yanlış veya eksik bilgi üzerine kurulan bir kararın sonuçları ağır olabilir.

Rusya Devlet Başkanı Vladimir Putin ve ABD Başkanı Donald Trump’ın çevresindeki karar alma mekanizmalarının niteliği bu açıdan dikkatle incelenmesi gereken bir konudur. Liderlerin etrafında kendilerine itiraz edebilen ve yanlış gördükleri kararları sorgulayabilen insanların bulunması, özellikle savaş gibi geri dönüşü çok zor kararlar bakımından büyük önem taşır.

Çin Devlet Başkanı Xi Jinping’in çevresindeki karar alma mekanizmasının nasıl işlediğini dışarıdan tam olarak bilmek ise daha zordur. Xi’nin Tayvan meselesini kendi döneminde çözmek istediğine ilişkin değerlendirmeler, önümüzdeki yıllarda bu konuda daha ciddi adımlar atılabileceği ihtimalini gündemde tutuyor.

Ancak Çin böyle bir karar verirse yalnızca askerî sonucu değil, uluslararası sistemde yaratacağı siyasi sonucu da hesaplamak zorunda olacaktır.

Çin bugüne kadar özellikle gelişmekte olan ülkelerle ilişkilerini güçlendirmeye ve kendisini Batı'nın karşısında alternatif bir güç olarak göstermeye çalıştı. Tayvan’a yönelik bir savaşın nasıl sonuçlanacağı kadar, dünyanın geri kalanının Çin’i nasıl değerlendireceği de Pekin açısından önemli olacaktır. Başarısız veya uzun süren bir savaş Çin’in uluslararası imajına ciddi zarar verebilir.

Sert güç yeniden mi dönüyor?

Bütün bu örneklerden, diplomasinin artık önemini kaybettiği sonucunu çıkarmak yanlış olur. Tam tersine, savaşların giderek daha uzun, daha pahalı ve daha belirsiz hale gelmesi diplomasiyi daha önemli kılıyor.

Ancak son yıllarda uluslararası sistemde sert gücün yeniden öne çıktığı da açık. Büyük güçler askerî kapasitelerine daha fazla güveniyorlar. Buna karşılık son yirmi beş yılın savaşları bize önemli bir ders veriyor:

Bir ülkeyi bombalamak, onun siyasi iradesini ortadan kaldırmak anlamına gelmiyor. Bir rejimi devirmek, yerine istenilen rejimi kurabileceğiniz anlamına gelmiyor. Askerî üstünlük ise siyasi zaferi garanti etmiyor.

Belki de büyük güçlerin son yıllardaki en önemli yanılgısı burada yatıyor.

ABD Afganistan ve Irak deneyimlerinden, Rusya Ukrayna’dan, İsrail Gazze ve Lübnan deneyimlerinden, şimdi de İran savaşıyla birlikte bütün taraflar yeni dersler çıkarıyorlar.

Çin de bunları dikkatle izliyor.

Belki de Pekin’in şimdilik beklemesinin en önemli nedeni budur.

Çünkü savaş başlatmak kolay olabilir; nasıl biteceğini bilmeden savaşa girmek ise çok daha tehlikelidir.

Dileriz Çin de dahil olmak üzere bütün büyük güçler bu dersi öğrenir ve önlerindeki sorunları çözmek için diplomasi yolunu tercih ederler.

TIME - Make the U.N. Great Again: The Uphill Struggle Facing the Next Secretary General -- ADD TIME ON GOOGLE -- Aug 22, 2026 1:00 PM TrST

 TIME

Introducing the 2026 TIME Trailblazers

Make the U.N. Great Again: The Uphill Struggle Facing the Next Secretary General

ADD TIME ON GOOGLE

Aug 22, 2026 1:00 PM TrST


Photo-Illustration by TIME (Source Images: Angela Weiss—AFP/Getty Images; Charly Triballeau—AFP/Getty Images

by Richard Gowan and  Daniel Forti


Richard Gowan is the Director of Global Issues and Institutions at the International Crisis Group.

Daniel Forti is the Head of UN Affairs at the International Crisis Group.



It may be both the most prestigious and the most frustrating job in international diplomacy: members of the United Nations are weighing who should succeed António Guterres as Secretary-General when he completes his final term in December. The timing couldn’t be more critical, with U.N.’s fortunes at a historically low ebb, for reasons both political and financial.


Indeed, U.N. insiders question why anyone would even want the job at such a testing—and turbulent—moment. Some predict that, with major powers repeatedly blocking the U.N. from intervening in crises from Ukraine to Myanmar, and with the U.S. rolling back funding, whoever succeeds Guterres will simply have to continue to do “less with less” and manage a process of institutional decline as gracefully as possible. Others still hold out hope that a new U.N. leader could reverse the slide, and persuade powers large and small to invest in the organization.


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Yet, at a time when global challenges—wars, epidemics, and climate change—continue to proliferate, there is a compelling case for preserving the U.N. as a space for global deal making. Doing so will require a Secretary-General of formidable political skills, capable of persuading world leaders to listen.


It is a question of balancing two competing imperatives. The U.N. is an organization that rests on international cooperation, but the current global moment is one of international competition. The challenge facing the next Secretary-General is to explain how the U.N. can stay relevant. This is no time to preach the virtues of solidarity among nations. It is necessary to meet governments “where they’re at,” as psychologists say, and accept their rifts are real. A shrewd leader of the U.N. could find ways to help states de-escalate conflicts and cooperate on global challenges out of necessity, not idealism.


Ultimately, if political leaders do not believe that the U.N., which was founded in 1945 to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war,” can live up to that founding goal, they are less likely to take it seriously as an authority on other international issues such as Artificial Intelligence or economic cooperation. Making sure that doesn’t happen will be the central challenge for the organization’s next leader. Perhaps each nomination should thus come with a warning: Caveat emptor, or buyer beware. 


Our tumultuous present

Maybe the biggest challenge for the next Secretary General lies inside the cavernous chamber that houses the Security Council, the organization’s most powerful body. The five permanent, veto power-wielding members—the United States, China, Russia, Britain, and France—that dominate the council have repeatedly blocked intervention in crises from Ukraine to Myanmar. The Biden Administration’s repeated refusal to support calls for a ceasefire in Gaza at the U.N. in 2023 and 2024 stirred deep resentment across the organization.


Most member states still pay homage to the U.N. Charter and its prohibition against aggression. But Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the U.S. decision to attack Iran in February suggest that some of the security council’s most powerful members no longer feel bound by its guiding principles. If the U.N.'s political situation is its main headache, its financial positions is a close second.


After the Trump Administration cut off the bulk of U.S. funding for its operations in 2025, U.N. officials have been spending a lot of their time wondering about how to pay the bills. The U.S. is supposed to cover about a fifth of the organization’s core costs and a quarter of the budget for its blue helmet peace operations, which add up to roughly $8.5 billion this year. Washington was already behind on its dues when Trump returned to office, and currently owes the U.N. about $4 billion. The U.S also previously covered roughly a third of the separate budgets for the organization’s big relief agencies—such as the World Food Programme—which need tens of billions of dollars to feed, vaccinate and shelter vulnerable people each year.


Other traditional donors, including European governments, are scaling back spending on development and humanitarian aid. Potential alternatives have not stepped in to close the financial gap. China is now on the hook for almost as much of the U.N.’s core and peacekeeping budgets as the U.S., but is often slow to stump up its annual contributions. Beijing also contributes very little to the humanitarian sector. While the Trump Administration has released some funds for the U.N.’s life-saving efforts this year, big relief agencies have been forced to cut back life-saving assistance to civilians in places like South Sudan and Afghanistan.


This is a markedly different landscape from the one António Guterres encountered in 2017, when the former Portuguese prime minister became Secretary-General. At that time, the U.N. members had just agreed to the Paris climate accord and a new set of Sustainable Development Goals, including a pledge to eradicate extreme poverty by 2030. Geopolitical storm clouds were gathering—the Security Council was fiercely divided over the war in Syria—and Donald Trump’s surprise victory in the 2016 elections, coming soon after Guterres’s selection, signaled trouble ahead. Still, for believers in multilateral processes, a broad agenda for international cooperation appeared to be in place, and the Secretary-General’s task was to turn it into reality.


That brief moment of optimism proved ephemeral. Guterres spent a large part of his first term trying, with some success, to keeping Trump at bay. Nonetheless rising tensions among major powers, and disputes over how to finance development projects and support poorer states’ climate change adaptation efforts, have eroded governments’ trust in one another, and their faith in the U.N.’s complex, negotiation-based approach to addressing their national interests. Guterres has spoken eloquently about the risks of international fragmentation, and has pushed U.N. members to work together on emerging challenges, such as the regulation of Artificial Intelligence. But he has struggled to get leaders to focus consistently on that agenda. Increasingly, many governments are turning instead to smaller, looser decision-making clubs—such as the Group of 7, a Western club, or the BRICS, the bloc of emerging market nations—rather than the U.N. itself.


Diplomats and U.N. officials also fault Guterres for taking a low-key role in crisis management, despite major conflicts exploding on his watch. The Secretary-General has been blunt about his lack of leverage to mediate in most of today’s conflicts, and has encouraged a culture of caution among his senior staff dealing with political affairs and peace operations. Although he was involved in one notable mediation success—the 2022 Black Sea Grain initiative—many U.N. members feel that his reluctance to engage in broader peace efforts has undermined the body’s credibility.


Runners and riders

Such critiques of the incumbent, and the manifold challenges facing the office of the Secretary General, haven’t deterred a clutch of candidates from around the world—who may yet be joined by new competitors as the race to succeed Guterres enters its final stretch. 


Eight candidates are currently jostling to replace him and assume the reins of what U.N. watchers sometimes call “the parliament of man.” Among the most widely discussed are Rafael Grossi, the Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, and Rebeca Grynspan, a senior U.N. trade official and former vice president of Costa Rica. Carolyn Rodrigues Birkett, Guyana’s ambassador to the U.N., is also a popular candidate among her colleagues in New York. But because there is no official cut-off point for new candidates to enter the race, and many diplomats expect more challengers to emerge, especially if none of the existing crop looks like a clear winner.


While the current candidates have been speaking at public events from Europe to Korea, they have struck a cautious tone regarding their plans for the U.N. This reflects the way the selection process works. The Security Council—where the U.S., Russia, China, France and the U.K. hold vetoes—is central to the process, vetting candidates and recommending one to the General Assembly, where all U.N. members have seats, for approval. To date, the Assembly has always ratified the recommendation. Anyone who wants to be Secretary-General must avoid offending the five veto powers.


Talking about what is wrong with the world today without irritating at least one of the major powers is quite hard. Guterres angered Russia by criticizing its war in Ukraine, and Moscow is likely looking for a pliable U.N. chief. The biggest headache for Guterres’s successor will be maintaining working relations with Washington in the remaining years of the Trump presidency. Senior U.N. officials worry that, having imposed severe economic strain on the organization, the U.S. will insist that the next Secretary-General make deep cuts to U.N. agencies and follow the Trump Administration’s agenda on questions such as diversity, and soft-pedal criticism of Israeli actions against the Palestinians.


Tiptoeing around these sensitivities, the eight candidates for the Secretary-General position agree that the U.N. is in poor shape. All have promised to concentrate on preventive diplomacy, and have committed to managing the organization efficiently. None has so far set out a groundbreaking strategy for putting the U.N. back on its feet. If this is partly a matter of political tact, it also reflects the fact that the U.N. Secretary-General, despite being the public face of the organization, has only limited power to shape the organization. While the veto powers dominate the Security Council, a sprawling array of intergovernmental committees and boards—including dozens of entities dealing with issues from telecommunications to the environment—oversee the wider work of the U.N. system.


The Secretary-General and his or her advisers must barter with U.N. members over remarkably minor budgetary matters, down to the number of mid-level and junior staff employed in U.N. offices. It is easy to call on the U.N.’s top official to focus on problems of world order, but bureaucracy gets in the way. 


Once in office, the next U.N. chief will have to manage these institutional issues while also laying a broader agenda. She or he could address this challenge by appointing a powerful chief of staff to handle administrative matters, freeing up more time to prioritize diplomacy.


On the diplomatic front, the incoming leader’s priority will be to demonstrate the ability to insert himself or herself into one or more conflicts, signaling a shift from the Guterres era. This is easier said than done. Conflict prevention and peacemaking have become crowded fields, with a growing number of middle powers, and at times the Trump Administration, leading peace processes that the U.N. might once have overseen. 


The next Secretary-General will not simply be able to fly into trouble spots and cajole warring parties into making deals. But he or she can use the first months in office to shuttle between key capitals in regions such as the Middle East, looking for opportunities to engage, and encouraging U.N. staff—who still have considerable expertise on issues like mediation and peacekeeping operations—to table new options for dealing with ongoing or looming conflicts. This is not likely to produce quick or major wins, and there is always a risk that the U.N. will launch peace initiatives that fail. But as a European diplomat familiar with the U.N. once put it, everyone expects the U.N. to fail, and as a result it can do so without sustaining reputational damage. 


The greater danger for the institution right now is that it fails to engage in meaningful crisis diplomacy at all, cementing the impression that it is no longer a significant peacemaking force. If the Secretary-General can use this kind of early outreach to gain a place on the diplomatic map, she or he will still face the challenge of articulating what the U.N. stands for in a divided world.


Collective action in a world divided

There is no shortage of good arguments for why collective action helps address problems that transcend borders. These often get lost at a time when the predominant political narratives center on national divisions and differences.


U.N. officials do not help themselves by couching their arguments in technocratic terms, weighed down with talk of goals and policy frameworks. But the underlying political challenge is to make a case for multilateralism that resonates with decision-makers who view international affairs in zero-sum, or at least very low-trust, terms.


The best approach may be to frame the U.N. as a sort of global risk reduction organization. Over the last decade, governments, the private sector and the public have seen the knock-on effects of both the pandemic and regional conflicts causing global economic disruption. New technologies are creating further economic shocks and could make future conflicts more dangerous.


The U.N. is not a global authority with the powers to halt these trends. But it is a space in which governments can discuss the risks involved and—where they see common ground—explore steps to mitigate them. Even though it may be easier for states to meet in smaller clubs such as the BRICS and G7, the U.N.’s advantage is that it remains a neutral space where different blocs of governments can engage in dialogue.


The next Secretary-General can only encourage rivalrous states to take part in these dialogues, and will need to do so with a light touch. In the past, the U.N. has sometimes responded to new challenges by announcing new agencies and funds to address them. The resulting multilateral bloat has become hard to sustain financially and defend politically. The incoming U.N. leadership will need to show that it can facilitate discussions of difficult global problems without adding new layers of bureaucracy.


The role of the Secretary-General is perhaps to be both the world’s most prominent event organizer—bringing governments and other actors into the room to talk about their problems—and a sort of political therapist for world leaders. If the Secretary-General can win the trust of these leaders, and persuade them to work on common problems despite their divisions, he or she may be able to bring a degree of stability to a dangerous international environment. In doing so, she or he can also keep some political space open for the U.N. to do its most basic work, getting help to the suffering, mitigating the effects of suffering and – at its best – giving small states and civil society groups a rare platform to speak out on issues like human rights and climate change.


The new leader of the U.N. cannot heal all the world’s divisions, but with courage and political acumen, the Secretary-General can make international disputes a little less toxic. That may be a limited vision of what the U.N., sometimes dubbed the “parliament of man” is for.  But in an era of multiplying dangers and distrust, it is a noble and perhaps essential one.





İletişim Başkanlığı - 4 Eylul 2026 - Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan’ın Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri Devlet Başkanı Al Nahyan ile görüşmesi

 İletişim Başkanlığı - 4 Eylul 2026 

Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan’ın Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri Devlet Başkanı Al Nahyan ile görüşmesine ilişkin açıklama

Cumhurbaşkanı Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri Devlet Başkanı Şeyh Muhammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan ile bir telefon görüşmesi gerçekleştirdi.

Görüşmede, Türkiye ile Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri ikili ilişkileri, bölgesel ve küresel konular ele alındı.

Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan, Türkiye ile Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri’nin savunma sanayii ve ekonomi başta olmak üzere birçok alanda iş birliğinin artarak süreceğini, ilişkileri geliştirmek için çalıştığımızı ifade etti.

Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan, Türkiye’nin İran-ABD gerilimi ve bölgemizdeki benzeri çatışmalı süreçlerin sona ermesi için gayret gösterdiğini, barış odaklı diplomatik girişimlerimizin devam edeceğini, bölgemizdeki kardeş ülkelere yönelik saldırıları asla tasvip etmediğimizi belirtti.

Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan, diğer bölgesel konularda da iki ülkenin iş birliğinin önemli olduğunu ifade etti.

Asia Times Middle East - War has shifted how power works in Iran Here is a system arguing with itself about existential questions of statecraft - by Andreas Krieg - September 2, 2026

 Asia Times

Middle East 

War has shifted how power works in Iran

Here is a system arguing with itself about existential questions of statecraft

by Andreas Krieg

September 2, 2026


The recently appointed supreme leader, Mojtaba Khamenei, is nominally in control of a complex and shifting power structure in Iran. But many Iran-watchers believe he may not still be alive. Photo: EPA / Abedin Taherkenareh



When Washington on August 19 unveiled its economic “D-Day” – the latest tightening of the financial siege and the blockade around Iran’s ports – it believed it was applying decisive leverage. But in Tehran the move was read as something else entirely: as confirmation that the US still prefers pressure to any settlement it might one day have to honor.


Across a political system that agrees on almost nothing, the interpretation was remarkably uniform. The economic stabilizers around the Iranian president, Masoud Pezeshkian, saw the US as reneging on a deal, while Major General Ahmad Vahidi’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) commanders saw their own warnings about American perfidy vindicated.


So whatever faith remained in Iran about US willingness to close a deal has thinned further. That erosion of trust now shapes what Tehran will and will not accept.


It is important to realize that Iran is making existential decisions about the survival strategy of the Islamic Republic itself. The old vocabulary of reformist against principlist – or moderate against hardliner – no longer reflects the real struggle inside the system.


The contest that matters runs between those who believe the Islamic Republic survives best by converting its wartime leverage into economic and diplomatic gains and those who believe survival depends instead on permanent confrontation. Both camps are loyal to the regime, and both argue in good faith about how to keep it alive. That makes the debate far harder to resolve.


It is also a debate with no single arbiter, because Iran today is best understood as a network state. Power runs through a decentralized structure that is horizontal in the way it is organised. The vertical hierarchy once associated with the former supreme leader Ali Khamenei has quietly dissolved.

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His son Mojtaba Khamenei sits at the formal apex and shapes outcomes largely through appointments. He has installed Mohsen Rezaee, a founder member of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), as his representative on the supreme national security council. He is also rebuilding the Bayt – the office of the supreme leader that has long been the system’s true center of gravity – around loyalists such as his new chief of staff, Mahdi Khamoushi.


Yet Mojtaba rules as a balancer rather than a decider, careful never to let any one node or hub dominate the system. Beneath him, authority is spread across the nodes of the security establishment. Rezaee coordinates strategy from the council, while Vahidi commands the military muscle, from the missile force to the naval pressure in the Strait of Hormuz.


Parliamentary Speaker Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf brokers the relationship between parliament and the security men. Pezeshkian’s government shoulders the economy, and the foreign minister, Abbas Araghchi, handles the messages abroad. No single figure combines all of these functions in one pair of hands.


Iran’s shifting power balance


But this horizontal picture is shifting, because the war has centralized power even in a system built to disperse it. The longer the confrontation with Washington runs, the more the IRGC moves from being merely the strongest node toward becoming the effective decision-maker.


The IRGC still cannot run the economy, conduct diplomacy and preserve clerical legitimacy all at once. This is why it governs through that coalition rather than in place of it. But a prolonged state of war is exactly the condition under which that necessity begins to erode, because all decisions become related to the conflict and how best to prevail.


The current system in Iran and its position towards a negotiated deal out of the war exists on a spectrum. At one end stand the economic stabilizers around Pezeshkian and Araghchi. Their camp consider the prolonged stalemate untenable and want sanctions relief, the release of frozen assets and an end to the blockade.


Next come the pragmatic sovereigntists led by Ghalibaf and Rezaei – regime insiders who see diplomacy as the only way out, but not when it comes at the expense of strategic autonomy. Their camp will accept negotiation only from a position of strength and insist that the missile program and the regional network of proxies stay off the table entirely.


Farther along sit the security-first coercionists gathered around Vahidi and the IRGC, who view diplomacy as a tactical instrument at all times subordinate to military leverage.


At the far end are the ideological rejectionists of the Paydari Front and Saeed Jalili’s network. These fundamentalists regard any agreement with Washington as a form of surrender. They function less as a governing bloc than as a spoiler capable of raising the political cost of any deal.


A chance to talk


It is misleading to mistake Iranian dissent for dysfunction, when in truth it is neither. Here is a system arguing with itself about existential questions of statecraft. What is striking about the country now is not the depth of the disagreement but the extent to which the factions agree on the fundamentals.


The spectrum has, without ever announcing it, largely agreed that some form of negotiation is the way out of the crisis. The stabilizers want a deal to rescue the economy. The sovereigntists want one to bank the gains of the war. Even the IRGC appear to want a channel of its own, as recent reports about the Trump administration relaying messages via Iraqi Kurdistan directly to the IRGC leadership suggest.


The fight is therefore no longer about whether to bargain. It’s about the precise ways and means of improving Iran’s position before it commits to anything irreversible.


Washington needs to understand that Iran has already begun to make its choice. Every US economic D-Day that reaches once more for the escalation trap strengthens the rejectionists who insist that confrontation with the US and Israel is permanent. It weakens the factions that have, against considerable odds, talked the system toward the negotiating table.


By seeking to talk to the IRGC, Donald Trump has shown he understands he has a unique opportunity to get out of this self-inflicted quagmire. But he must not allow his ego to stand in the way of the mediators’ arduous efforts.


Andreas Krieg is an associate professor, Defense Studies Department, King’s College London.


This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.









THE AMERICAN Spectator – Another Long Twilight Struggle China’s ambitions and ideology will drive a prolonged clash with the West. by Francis P. Sempa September 2, 2026, 11:07 PM

THE AMERICAN Spectator 

In Print – Summer 2026

Another Long Twilight Struggle

China’s ambitions and ideology will drive a prolonged clash with the West.

by Francis P. Sempa

September 2, 2026, 11:07 PM



During the Cold War against the Soviet Union, some of the most perceptive strategic thinkers wrote books about that conflict with titles like The Struggle for the World, This War Called Peace, and The Real War. Those titles reflected the geopolitical realities of the second half of the twentieth century. The Cold War had both geopolitical and ideological aspects because our principal enemy — the Soviet Union — was both a great power and was led by a totalitarian Marxist–Leninist Communist Party. President John F. Kennedy once called the U.S.–Soviet rivalry the “long twilight struggle.” It is a phrase that accurately describes the current U.S.–China rivalry, too. 


This article is from The American Spectator’s summer 2026 print magazine. Subscribe to The American Spectator to receive the magazine.


At the beginning of the Cold War, the director of the State Department’s Policy Planning Staff, George F. Kennan, explained in his famous “X” article in Foreign Affairs that Soviet foreign and defense policies derived from Marxist–Leninist ideology and Russian history. Kennan also noted that Soviet policy was conditioned by geographical circumstances — ones that the great British geopolitical thinker Sir Halford Mackinder analyzed in his 1904 paper “The Geographical Pivot of History.” Russia, Mackinder wrote, like the Mongol Empire of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, was geographically situated in the “heartland” of Eurasia, enabling expansion into Western Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia. And Mackinder believed that a great power or alliance of powers that controlled the resources of Eurasia could forge a world empire.  


Mackinder remarkably foresaw in an essay in Foreign Affairs in 1943 the creation of an alliance of sea powers and coastal Eurasian powers that could counterbalance the threat from Soviet Russia. The Cold War played out as Mackinder thought it would in that 1943 essay, titled “The Round World and the Winning of the Peace.” He predicted that the rise of what he called the “Monsoon countries” of China and India, combined with North Atlantic sea powers, would produce a balanced globe.

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Magazine cover depicting Uncle Sam before a crumbling Roman Colosseum.

Subscribe to The American Spectator to receive our summer 2026 print magazine.

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Interestingly, Mackinder in his 1904 paper suggested that China, too, was geographically situated on Eurasia to bid for global hegemony if it could politically consolidate the most populous country in the world. Indeed, unlike Russia, China had a long, warm-water coastal area that provided it with greater access to the sea than Russia if the Chinese invested sufficiently in naval power and weren’t blocked by opponents on nearby island chains in the Western Pacific Ocean in a maritime region that Nicholas Spykman later called the “Asiatic Mediterranean.” 


Like the Soviet Union in the twentieth century, China’s foreign policy today reflects Marxist–Leninist–Maoist ideology, Chinese history, and China’s geographical circumstances. 


Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leaders are committed Marxist–Leninist–Maoists. The French writer Charles Baudelaire once noted that “The Devil’s cleverest wile is to make men believe that he does not exist.” Beginning in the 1980s and continuing to the present, the CCP’s “cleverest wile” was and is to make Americans believe that the leaders of the CCP are no longer communists. That “wile” helped the CCP grow its economy and its military power — with U.S. and Western financial assistance. Many U.S. businessmen and political leaders were persuaded by this wile that CCP leaders were really capitalists who just wanted to make money and make their country wealthy. Retired Navy Captain James Fanell and Bradley Thayer examine the success of this CCP wile in their book Embracing Communist China: America’s Greatest Strategic Failure (2024). 


The CCP effectively conducted a massive disinformation campaign that was reminiscent in some respects of the Soviet disinformation operation in the early-to-mid 1920s known as the “Trust.” The Trust involved Bolshevik operatives who persuaded U.S. and Western intelligence services that communism in Russia was over; that the Bolsheviks had abandoned their revolutionary ideology and political program to spread communism throughout the world. As Edward Jay Epstein noted in his book Deception, the Bolshevik disinformation campaign “was carefully calculated to dupe the West into believing the Communist revolution was moribund — and therefore no threat.” Western nations extended trade credits, technology transfers, and subsequently diplomatic recognition to “what they assumed would quickly evolve into a non-Communist Soviet Union.” 


In his book Red-Handed: How American Elites Get Rich Helping China Win, Peter Schweizer attributed the success of the CCP’s wile to Western economic greed, corruption, and political naivete. Whatever the cause or causes, it is clear that the CCP-led China convinced most of the world — but not their own people — that while they sometimes paid lip service to communism, they were really Asian capitalists. Former national security official Matt Pottinger told Congress in 2023 that “the success the CCP has enjoyed presenting itself as constructive, cooperative, responsible, normal, is one of the great magic tricks of the modern era.” 


With the ascension of Xi Jinping to power in 2012, however, the mask of capitalism came off, revealing to anyone who cared to look that the CCP remained a totalitarian communist regime. All one had to do was to read Xi’s speeches and observe his accumulation of power that rivaled that of Mao Zedong. In a speech to the CCP’s Central Committee in 2013, Xi stated his belief that “capitalism will inevitably perish and socialism will inevitably triumph.” In 2018, Xi told his audience that “Marx was the greatest thinker in human history” and that the CCP “must struggle for communism our entire lives.” Xi has explained that China’s ideology and social system “are fundamentally incompatible with the West” and that China’s struggle with the West is “irreconcilable so it will inevitably be strong, complicated and sometimes even very sharp.” Xi has also promised that China will “never allow any foreign force to bully, oppress or subjugate us” and “anyone who attempts to do so will bash their heads bloody on a great wall of steel forged with the flesh and blood of over 1.4 billion Chinese people.”


The CCP’s commitment to Leninism and Maoism has created what Norwegian political scientist Stein Ringen calls “the perfect dictatorship.” China’s regime is “single-mindedly committed to its own preservation.” The CCP is omnipresent and hosts “an ideology that is ultra-dangerous.” It is a massive surveillance state led by a regime that will do whatever it takes to maintain and expand its power, including committing genocide, as has been documented in Xinjiang province.


Chinese history and tradition reinforce the CCP’s ideology that China will triumph in its struggle with the West. China’s rulers historically have viewed it as the center of the world destined to bring “All Under Heaven (tianxia) under its sway.” As Olivia Cheung has pointed out, “Tianxia is a hierarchical world order, where China, the top ‘civilizational power,’ is above other countries.” Xi Jinping’s version of tianxia is “unrivaled Chinese power,” similar to China during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), where its rulers viewed their country as the center of the world, with all other states being peripheral powers that must pay tribute to the Middle Kingdom. During that time period, China also ventured out into the world’s oceans and built a navy led by Admiral Zheng He that dominated the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. 


When the CCP achieved victory in China’s civil war in October 1949, Mao Zedong added another historical narrative: The CCP’s victory, he said, was the end of a “century of humiliation” when China was economically and politically exploited by the world’s other great powers. As Mark Metcalf has noted, the century of humiliation is used by the CCP as a motive for China “to reclaim its past glory and its rightful place in the world.” It is part of the justification for Xi Jinping’s program for the “great rejuvenation of the Chinese people.”


An essential part of Xi’s program is to build a “world-class military,” which China is in the process of doing. The Department of War’s 2025 “Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China” notes that the People’s Liberation Army “has continued its massive nuclear expansion,” with a stockpile of over 600 nuclear warheads that will likely reach more than a thousand warheads by 2030. China’s immediate goal, according to the report, is “to use nuclear deterrence to more broadly deter and limit adversary military involvement in a conventional conflict,” such as war in the South China Sea over Taiwan. 


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Caricature of Xi Jinping looming over a naval fleet.

Art by Bill Wilson for The American Spectator

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China’s navy is the world’s largest, and while experts say the United States still has a qualitative advantage in sea power, that advantage is eroding. China’s shipbuilding capacity is more than 200 times that of the United States, which does not bode well for the United States in a future Western Pacific war. Importantly, in nuclear weapons and naval warships, the trends are moving in China’s direction. One naval expert worries that China is aiming at a “globe-spanning” navy “that can threaten the U.S. Navy’s command of the world ocean.” A recent biography of Admiral Liu Huaqing, who was most responsible for the rise of China’s navy, calls him “China’s Mahan,” after Alfred Thayer Mahan, who was the foremost exponent of American sea power in the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries. Xi Jinping said Admiral Liu’s work and vision “would inspire the whole [Communist] party, whole country, and all the Chinese people … to realize the great goals of  … the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.”  


China’s ideology and global ambitions mean that the United States is once again in a “long twilight struggle” that is similar to, but even more dangerous than, the Cold War with the Soviet Union. George Kennan, in his “long telegram” from Moscow in February 1946, described the Soviet Union’s leadership as “a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with the U.S. there can be no permanent modus vivendi.” The same is true of the CCP today. China, unlike the USSR during the Cold War, presents a multidimensional challenge across all domains of power. China’s economy and political structure are less vulnerable to U.S. pressure than were the economy and political structure of the Soviet Union. And, importantly, there appears to be no Chinese Gorbachev on the CCP’s political horizon. 


That doesn’t mean that this geopolitical rivalry will end in war. Chinese strategic thought reaches back to Sun Tzu, who in the fifth century B.C. counseled: “To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill.” The United States, meanwhile, won the first long twilight struggle against the Soviet Union by combining George Kennan’s preferred “patient, firm and vigilant” containment with the political, economic, and subversive warfare of the Reagan administration. 


In 1919, the tired and war-weary Western democracies failed to strangle Bolshevism in its cradle, as Winston Churchill and Halford Mackinder urged them to do. The democracies provided insufficient support to the “White” forces in Russia’s civil war, and the Bolsheviks emerged victorious. The long twilight struggle against the Soviet Union lasted until 1991. In 1945–46, the tired and war-weary Western democracies failed to sufficiently support the Nationalist forces in China, as General Douglas MacArthur, William Bullitt, and others urged them to do so. With Soviet support, the CCP emerged victorious in China’s civil war three years later, setting the stage for another “long twilight struggle,” the outcome of which will likely determine the political structure of the world order for the rest of the twenty-first century

BBC - 4 hours ago ( Sept. 4, 2026) - by Alex Boyd - How could US - Iran conflict end? Three experts give their views

 

BBC - How could US-Iran conflict end? 

Three experts give their views

Anadolu via Getty Images General view of a five-storey building in Tehran. The building has been shelled-out by a reported missile attack, the outer brickwork is no longer visible and instead the building is hollowed out but is still standing. It is surrounded by rubbleAnadolu via Getty Images
Iran has suffered from the war, but its leaders remain defiant

The prospect of an imminent agreement to end the conflict between the US and Iran again seems unlikely, with the warring sides exchanging strikes and uncompromising rhetoric.

The attacks come days after the US said it was moving into a new phase - a sweeping economic blockade against Iran and countries which trade with it.

The US aim was to force Iran to negotiate and to stop its attacks on shipping in the Strait of Hormuz. The key commercial shipping route has been effectively closed since the US and Israel started the conflict in February.

A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) the two sides signed in June and meant to result in a permanent ceasefire and a deal within 60 days has expired.

As the conflict enters its seventh month, we asked three experts for their thoughts on how it may play out.

US hopes military and economic pressure will weaken Iran's negotiating power

Jason Campbell, Senior Fellow at the Middle East Institute, Washington DC

The problem is we still do not know definitively what the US strategic objectives are in Iran. The White House is persistently re-evaluating what it is willing to live with from a political standpoint.

It was assumed the military component would be enough for a quick victory and that has not had the desired effect.

What we are seeing is different levers - both military and economic - that the US is trying to pull at.

Right now, the administration appears satisfied with some form of statis. I think they are satisfied with maintaining the blockade and with allowing some periodic targeting against Iran's capability to upset the shipping lane in the strait.

US officials are hopeful that the new sanctions will be enough to compel the Iranian regime to come to the negotiating table in a weaker position.

US forces have seemingly been able to facilitate a sufficient trickle through the Strait of Hormuz in recent days to avert an oil-price shock or a global economic collapse. But those were not the US objectives when starting the war.

My sense is that Iran is likely to demand a high price to get to a resolution, which is likely to remain politically untenable for the Trump administration.

Iran will wait for US concessions

Dr Aniseh Bassiri Tabrizi, Associate Fellow with Chatham House's Middle East and North Africa Programme, London

I do not think the latest strikes really alter Iranian calculations on the war. I think Tehran is preparing for an increased squeeze on its economy, and a continuation of the on and off attacks which we have seen over the past couple of months. Their intent will be to respond to these attacks in a proportionate manner in order not to spiral a larger conflict.

On the economic side, obviously this is likely to hurt the Iranian economy which has already been affected by the war and has had underlying structural issues anyway, as we know from the December and January demonstrations in Iran.

But I do not feel like there is the sense from the Iranian side that the economic squeeze is going to alter the Iranian calculation any time soon, including on any negotiations.

That does not mean Iran is not looking for an off ramp, but I think what we are seeing is that it is waiting for the US to go back to the MoU, or to at least offer some sort of concession. Tehran does not want to cave in to US pressure or alter its own approach in response to sanctions or additional attacks.

US knows what to do - go back to the ceasefire deal

Nicholas Hopton, Distinguished Fellow in international security at the Royal United Services Institute think tank in London and former UK ambassador to Iran

The latest spike in military action is not going to produce Iran's capitulation - it is just the latest twist. Economic pressure is also unlikely to work because China, Russia and many other countries which trade with Iran are not going to support unilateral US sanctions.

Iran can continue to disrupt the Strait of Hormuz - they have a thumb on the jugular of the global economy.

What is the White House's exit strategy?

Well, the US has already found it. If Trump was able to put a sustained effort into negotiating the deal outlined in June's MoU, that is the off-ramp.

Not only would a deal give the US a kind of victory because it would weaken the hardliners in the Islamic Republic, but also reassure everyone that Iran is not going to get a nuclear weapon.

There is a silver bullet in the MoU which is the lifting of all US sanctions on Iran.

What lifting those sanctions would do over time is weaken Iran's powerful Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corp (IRGC). Economic engagement between the outside world and Iran in a new way would gradually force radical political and social change - so you end up with an Islamic regime, but of a very different nature.

Of course, that would not be straightforward to achieve, because of extensive IRGC penetration of the Iranian economy. But it should work, if given enough time and if the US and its partners exercised strategic patience which, sadly, is in short supply at this point.

For the time being, I think we're going to carry on with a messy, inconclusive situation that is bad for everyone.